Classical Music Criticism and Judgment Essay Example for Free

Classical Music Criticism and Judgment Essay Classical music is one kind of the art music from various style of music. On Oxford Dictionary give the meaning of classical music as serious music following long-established principles rather than a folk, jazz, or popular tradition, and even give more specifically meaning by the period of music(since the music has 6 periods; middle age, renaissance, baroque, classic, romantic and contemporary) that classical music is the music written in the European tradition during a period lasting approximately from 1750 to 1830, when forms such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata were standardized. How do we judge the classical music, and what is the musical value of classical music? I think this is the hard thing to critics about the good or bad of the things that we call it as one kind of art. We could analyze music by their elements such as the musical form, the harmony, the rhythm, orchestration, register of that piece etc. But also the problems is everyone has different taste and also some have the same taste too such as one composer love the way dominant chord run to sub median chord and then resolve to dominant again then end with tonic chord but another one like the way to begin the phrase with sub median then dominant for two bars to extend the dominant longer (could call it as dominant prolongation) until tonic in the last bar. The question is what is the best chord progression of those two ideas? , and how do we judge what is the best chord progression? And interesting question is how do we judge that one piece copy from any other pieces? Another example is if we judge one of the phrases in symphony no. 9 by Beethoven â€Å"Ode to Joy† as the best phrase that compound with many good melodies, best chord progression and orchestration and great idea to add choir to that movement but there is also a question that who judge that this phrase is the best. How do they judge? , and what is the material that they use to judge this kind of classical music to make it the best of Beethoven’s pieces? The Best music in all kind of area not only includes by best music by creativity composers but also has to have best performers that can perform the best performances too. In classical music the performers have to do analyze and interpretation the music that they will perform, have to know the period of that music so they could play as the style of each period, have to practice in the right way to gain more techniques to their muscles to control their musical instrument, have to perform as natural as possible like they are speaking, eating or walking. The best performers have to bring all emotions and energy from the music that is just a music note on the paper to touch their audiences’ heart. The problems are what is the best performance? , and how do we judge the performance? As a classical guitarist I used to compete in one competition. All juries have to fill in the form for all competitors there topics are Technique, Dynamics, Balancing, Precision and Rhythm, Style and Expression, and Stage Performance. Maybe those topics could judge the best performance but the problem I could see was one song that I performed called Marley’s Ghost by Andrew York the main part of first section was the melody on the bass line. One of jury wrote on the Balancing blog that I played too loud but another on said I played too soft so I got the question that who is correct? This could show that it is hard to judge the best performance. It is depend on what do you like? What is your feeling? What are the things that you used to experiences. At last the way we critic and judge classical music could be judge from both quality of pieces and the quality of performance. The performers should know the aesthetic of composers who composed the songs that they will perform so they can perform in the way right way from performers’ interpretation. And definitely the listeners will judge it by their experience and feeling.

Swiss neutrality after the cold war Essay Example for Free

Swiss neutrality after the cold war Essay The creation of the range and confines of Swiss neutrality at the point in time of its beginning and progress differed noticeably from that of these days; it may be portrayed as looser, broader and vaguer. The bipolar power-and-pact arrangement fell apart with the conclusion of the Cold War. Ever since, the global arena has seemed further complex and erratic. â€Å"Even if the balance of terror was anything other than a peaceful state, the international situation was more easily assessed then than it is today. †(Goetschel, 2005) Subsequent to the Second World War and throughout the Cold War, the Swiss government decision-makers superior the significance of impartiality at home and connected it to sovereignty. The wide-ranging population accepted this, credit in part to the combined experience of being spared the destruction of the Second World War. A neutral stance, connected with noticeable anti-communism, was seen as a method to defend in opposition to reputed threats to autonomy – be it from the Russians or from organizations with international prominence. Dissimilar to multi-polarity, bipolarity was more straightforward, and the superior meditation of power condensed susceptibility. Subsequent to the Cold War, neo-realists predicted military conflict to shatter the European continent once again. This was due to the fact that wars in Europe were actually potential threat once more, established in geographically restricted regions because of the fall of the accord system. However, these are clashes within states, not warfare between them. The modification in international relations at the conclusion of the Cold War lead to a continuing sharp rise in value for foreign policy carried out multilaterally, as different to customary mutual relations. Both the investigation for new international ideologies of organization and the opinionated management of globalization command a collective political approach; more and more, this is taking place. This is relevant to an even higher level to Europe, where the political society of EU countries carries on developing and integrating. Nation-states stay the most significant actors, but the surroundings in which they pursue and put into effect their interests has changed. During the Cold War, foreign policy and foreign trade policy were more or less identical in Switzerland, since it deliberately endorsed apolitical monetary foreign relations, in maintenance of traditional explanations of Swiss impartiality. Since then, Switzerlands foreign trade guiding principle has assisted it realize notable financially viable incorporation in the world, in spite of its small-state identity (the recurrent justification for unreceptive policy in further areas of foreign associations). Switzerlands participation in NATOs Partnership for Peace (Web 1) is a glaring example. Hastening transformation in the worldwide arena since the closing stages of the Cold War has impacted Swiss foreign policy in two ways: mutual action has developed as being more important, and the overlap of domestic and foreign policy has increased. This paper’s conclusions focus on these two points, which have originated a rise in the contradictory goals and confront that shape rational foreign policy. Global conditions influence independence, power and national interests. States, doesn’t matter if they are large or small, can ever expect to have absolute autonomy. At present independence tends to play a superior role in discussions than territorial barriers do. This calls for a combined political approach, particularly when probing for new principles of intercontinental order and dealing politically with globalization. Resources Goetschel, Laurent. 2005. Swiss Foreign Policy. Publisher: Rout ledge. Web 1- http://www. eda. admin. ch/etc/medialib/downloads/edazen/doc/publi. Par. 0012. File. tmp/Swiss%20Neutrality%20in%20Practice%20-%20Current%20Aspects. pdf

Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES)

Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES) Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES), a non-profit organization was founded in 1989. Its objectives include encouraging ethical and sustainable business practices and promoting investment policies which are environmentally, socially and financially sound. It has created a group of worlds largest companies and investors who are responsible to take care of the environmental issues. 100-plus companies and many Fortune 500 businesses like- General Motors, Polaroid, Body Shop International, Bank of America, are engaged with Ceres for supporting clean energy policies and maintaining a strong climate. Financial organizations and Environmental groups like Sierra Club are members with Ceres (Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES), 2016).   Ceres aims at making companies understand the concerns of the planets future. Meeting the sustainable challenges of the 21st century is important along with running business. Ceres works on making the environment more sustainable and therefore it follows all the laws that comes under the Environmental Laws and Regulations of the U.S. government. Ceres rights: On the account of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill that happened in the Gulf of Alaska in March 1989, Ceres came up with its core Ten Principles. These principles aim to protect the earth, its energy and resources wisely; reduce waste and doing business in fair manner. The principles and its aspects are as follows: (The Ceres Principles , n.d.) Laws supported by Ceres- There are several issues addressed by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA). Some of them include- limitation on air pollutants, enforcement of clean water and laws on safe drinking. EPA works for implementation of these federal laws so that the environment does not get affected by business practices. Ceres works along with EPA in implementation of the laws. The INCR Policy Working Group an initiative by Ceres focuses on five different areas of policy engagement: Its members collaborate with other investor groups, including the European IIGCC, the Australian/New Zealand IGCC, the Asian AIGCC, UN PRI and UNEP-FI, to support the Strong Climate and Clean Energy Policy among the investors worldwide. Its members also support the policies which promote clean and low carbon fuel sources, improving Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards, and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions which happen by transportation activities. INCR members also support research reports which show the investment case for such policies. Under the Clean Air Act, the EPA has proposed an arrangement of noteworthy controls that will lessen air emissions, help the economy and make occupations. Financial specialists have signed letters and met with Congressional staff to guarantee implementation of the Utility Mercury and Air Toxics Standard, the Cross State Air Pollution Rule and the Carbon Pollution Standard for Future Power Plants. The Ceres Roadmap to Sustainability, organizations are relied upon to adjust publicly disclosed arrangement positions on atmosphere and energy issues with the approaches they advocate through their lobbying and political expenditures. Its members bolster a scope of approaches at the state and government level, for example, the Production Tax Credit for renewable vitality, the California AB32 climate and Clean Energy Program and the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI). Ceres makes sure companies and investors follow the strong climate and Clean energy policies in the US and abroad. One of the CEOs of Ceres- Mindy S. Lubber joined U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1995. She joined it as a senior policy advisor and has achieved recognition as a regional administration under President Bill Clinton in 2000. She has also been a president at former National Environmental Law Center. Her efforts include- Organizing waste removal at hazardous waste sites Redevelopment, new jobs and urban revitalization Protection of drinking water supplies (2016 William K. Reilly Award Winners Announced, n.d.). Ceres along with WWF assembled a group of 100 large companies which supported the Paris Climate Agreement. It also supports the Clean Power Plant which was an initiative by Obama administration. Ceres strongly supports Clean Air Act(Business Is Taking Action on LGBT Rights. Will Climate Change Be Next?, n.d.). In the Six Proactive steps that Ceres has made for insurance companies, for addressing the climate change, it mentions about the Greenhouse gas emission, in favor of Federal and International Policies which limit its emissions. It addresses the threat of change in the climate because of carbon pollution (Insurance, n.d.). Laws opposed by Ceres- Ceres mostly works for sustaining the environment and limiting business practices for better future. It supports laws that relate to maintaining environment standards. Therefore, there arent many laws that are being opposed by Ceres. Rather there are a couple of them which are addressed as below. It opposed the Presidents and Congressional Leaders abandoning of Methane rule and the Clean Power Plant. Ceres believes that these laws were made to support the environment. There are many companies that has made an agreement in support of the law. And so, Ceres does not want such laws to get abandoned. It also shows its disagreement with the Presidents two-for-one executive order which requires deletion of two federal regulations against any one issued. Ceres impact on business- Ceres major goal lies in influencing business and its practices which affect environment. It has made many huge contributions which has helped business to follow the standards and become effective in their practices. The contributions by Ceres which impacted companies include- Investor Network on Climate Risk (INCR), 2003- works on leadership and accomplishments on climate and sustainability of financial firms. Launched the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) for corporate reporting on environment, social and economic performances Launched the Climate Declaration Launched Business for Innovative Climate and Energy Policy (BICEP) Ceres made an evaluation of its member companies and found that most of them have adopted policies based on International norms and fewer companies have adopted sector-specific policies. In the evaluation, most frequent instituted policies include those related to bribery and corruption and elimination of discrimination along with overall sustainability of environment. Companies which adopted the international standards like International Labor Organization(ILO) and United Nations Global Compact (UNGC), show understanding of sustainability issues and are committed in implementing changes in their business (Corporate Policies and Management Systems, n.d.). Ceres influence on legislative process- Ceres resolved an issue on United Parcel Service (UPS)s Lobbying Disclosure. It laid down points which the BOD of UPS requires to disclose in their report. Indirect lobbying and Grassroots lobbying communication are the points covered under the solution. These points include efforts at the local, state and federal levels. Along with this, we already saw that Ceres has laid down its core 10 principles which are in favor of environmental protection. Business and stakeholders adhere to these aspects and make sure that they are abiding by the rules related to these policies. It tracks shareholders resolutions and considers the following issues: Climate change Carbon asset risk Greenhouse gas emission Water pollution and scarcity Public policy Air pollution methane emission Proxy voting policies Human rights The shareholders make such resolutions. This ensures that they make proper implementation of the laws. On studying the resolutions, the legislatures can make laws that depend upon the environmental standards. Ceres 3-year plan- Ceres has presented a Road map on Sustainability which covers Governance for sustainability, Stakeholder Engagement, Disclosure, Performance: Operation, Supply Chain, Transportation and Logistics, Product and Services, Employees. The Roadmap expectation on corporate policies and management systems measures the extent to which companies embed sustainability into decision-making. Encourage organizations to receive a more expansive way to deal with recognizing and speaking with stakeholders, including engagement on a more extensive topic. The disclosure segment layout the attributes of a way to deal with revelation that meets the new and rising difficulties on corporate sustainability. The operation segment enhances sustainability across their operations, including building and facilities management, water management, the elimination of waste and respect for human rights. Sustainable supply chain performance expects establishing supplier policies and endorsing industry codes or practices containing explicit references to social and environmental standards. Transportation and logistics include reducing transportation impacts which are focused on the architecture of the transportation network, including distances traveled; and specific transportation modes, including the sustainability credentials of the energy sources used. This section also looks at business travel and commuting practices and the role that companies can take in shaping employee behavior. Sustainable solutions for products and services should be that they are marketed and delivered in a sustainable way. Proper communication of the usage and consumption pattern. Improved recruitment and retention rates, employee morale and productivity, and lower healthcare costs should be crucial for companys employees in order for sustainable performance (The Ceres Roadmap for Sustainability Ceres, n.d.). Ceres aims at transferring the way corporations integrate environmental and social risks into their decision-making. By 2020 Ceres wants major companies which re its members to attain these standards. The areas in which more companies should come forward include Product and Services and Supply Chain. Ceres looks forward in making greater attempts at helping companies in achieving the goals of sustainable environmental business practices. Mind-Map: Ceres an organization works majorly in line with the International Laws on Environmental protection. It supports U.S. laws as well about certain policies. Ceres helps implementation of the following laws of Unites States Federal Environmental Statutes- Clean air act Clean water act Emergency planning and community right to know act Energy policy act National environmental policy act Resources conservation and recovery act References (n.d.). Retrieved from 2016 William K. Reilly Award Winners Announced: http://www.american.edu/spa/cep/news/2016_Reilly_Award_Winners.cfm Business Is Taking Action on LGBT Rights. Will Climate Change Be Next? (n.d.). Retrieved from Business Is Taking Action on LGBT Rights. Will Climate Change Be Next? Ceres: https://www.ceres.org/press/press-clips/business-is-taking-action-on-lgbt-rights.-will-climate-change-be-next Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES). (2016, november 24). Retrieved from Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Coalition-for-Environmentally-Responsible-Economies Corporate Policies and Management Systems. (n.d.). Retrieved from Corporate Policies and Management Systems Ceres: https://www.ceres.org/roadmap-assessment/about/roadmap-expectations/governance-for-sustainability/policies-and-management-systems Insurance. (n.d.). Retrieved from Insurance-Ceres: https://www.ceres.org/industry-initiatives/insurance The Ceres Principles . (n.d.). Retrieved from The Ceres Principles- Ceres: https://www.ceres.org/about-us/our-history/ceres-principles The Ceres Roadmap for Sustainability Ceres. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Ceres Roadmap for Sustainability Ceres: https://www.ceres.org/roadmap-assessment

Solar Access Laws :: Essays Papers

Solar Access Laws Brief History of Solar Access Ralph Knowles’ paper, â€Å"The Solar Envelope† further discusses the high priority given to structures that reflected the path of the sun in ancient civilizations. The Acoma Pueblo Settlement west of Albuquerque, New Mexico has been occupied by over one thousand years. In Acoma, buildings are arranged in rows oriented to the south at intervals down the hillside. The buildings collectively face south, toward warming rays of winter sun and away from heating east/west sun of summer. In the winter the low sun warms thick masonry walls that in turn warm interior rooms into the night. In the summer the sun passes overhead hitting (and reflecting off of) roofs and terraces. The Acoma houses are spaced to offer protection in summer by sharing sidewalls and so as not to shade one another in winter. Necessity of Solar Access Laws As societies have placed value on solar access for centuries, we are faced in a time of extreme exponential growth with the challenges of maintaining equal solar access for all. Equal Solar Access is important in two fundamental ways. The first is science based. Solar access saves energy. In 1988 the Tacoma Energy Office conducted the â€Å"Tacoma Solar Access and Economic Benefits Study† and found that solar lot orientation reduces energy use by between ten and twenty percent per single-family housing unit (Aalfs 1997). As in Acoma, the Tacoma energy office recognized the fundamental role the sun could play in efficient energy use and ultimately energy conservation. In Tacoma, energy savings were identified as the primary goal of solar access standards. In Tacoma they cited further that energy savings would be likely to go up in the future with the development of solar technologies and diminishing supplies of petroleum products. Individuals and businesses in both the private and public sectors must have equal opportunity to alternative energy systems that may use the infinite (at least until the sun super novas) supply of solar energy. It is necessary to maintain equal access for not only current energy savings but for alternative energy strategies in the future. Ultimately, the sun is integral to all life. Knowles states that it is the warmth, energy and rhythm of our lives. It â€Å"informs our perceptions of time and space and our scale in the universe.† Knowles goes as far as to say, â€Å"Without the assurance of solar access, we face uncertainty and disorientation.

Loyalty Of Employee :: essays research papers

Different cultures place varying values on loyalty to the employer. In some countries, most notably in Asia, there is a high degree of loyalty to one company. However, in most European countries and the United States, loyalty at ones employer is not highly values; instead it is considered more rational and reasonable for an employee to change jobs whenever it is warranted to achieve the optimal overall career. Both of these positions have advantages and disadvantages. In cultures that value loyalty to the employer, a kind of family relationship seems to develop between employer and employee. It is a reciprocal arrangement, which the employer is concerned with assisting the employee to develop to his or her full potential and the employee is concerned about optimizing the welfare of the company. The negative aspect to absolute loyalty to one company is that an employee may stay in one job that he or she has outgrow and may miss out on opportunities to develop in new directions. From the employer’s point of view, the employee may be burdened with employees whose skills no longer match the needs of the company.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In cultures in which it is quite acceptable to change jobs every few years, employees can build the career they choose for themselves. They can stay with one company as long as it is mutually beneficial to the company and employee. As long as good relationship exists and the employee’s career is advancing at an acceptable pace, the employee can remain with a company. But at any time the employee is free to move to another company, perhaps to achieve a higher position, to move to a new area, or to find anew situation that is more suitable for his or her personality.

Wilderness Survival :: essays research papers

Whether you are simply going camping at a commercial campground, taking a short hike, or backpacking into a pristine wilderness area... be prepared. Never leave to chance those few articles that may become lifesavers. Above all, always let someone know your itinerary and the time you plan to return. The following is a list of items that should be included in a basic survival kit: bodyOffer(17619)You May Be Owed Unclaimed Money To Find Out, Enter Your Last Name Here: 1.Waterproof matches (stick matches in a 35mm film container) or a disposable lighter. 2.Fire starter 3.Rigid blade knife (Preferably serrated on one side of the blade) w/ sheath 4.Folding saw 5.Compass 6.Map of the area you are in 7.Signal mirror 8.Flashlight 9.Plastic tarp 10.50 to 100 feet of nylon cord (1/8 inch is adequate) 11.First aid kit 12.Coins for pay phones (here again a 35mm film container works well) 13.Full canteen 14.Emergency food rations 15.Water purification tablets/filter. 16.Fish hooks and fishing line 17.Police whistle 18.Toilet paper Fire: When starting a fire find dry wood. Use the inner bark of trees, or look for the dead branches at the very bottom of fir trees. These are dead because they were denied sunlight by the branches above them. These same branches have probably protected them from getting wet. Start your fire small and gradually increase its size. Tinder will greatly enhance your chance for success. Take small branches and shred then with a knife o r your fingers. You can use dead grass, bird’s nests, wasp nests (unoccupied of course), inner bark from dead trees, or a strip of cloth from the tail of your shirt. Use anything that will ignite quickly. Place this in the center. Around this, build a teepee of small dry twigs. Once this is burning, slowly feed your fire with larger and larger pieces of wood. Always making sure the fire is burning freely before you progress to a larger piece of wood. Once this fire is burning do not let it go out. bodyOffer2() Shelter: Do not make the mistake of trying to construct a large shelter. Make it just large enough to accommodate you. This is important, especially in cold climates, because you are going to have to heat it. Use the materials at hand. Dig out a pit and line it with something to insulate you from the ground. Your body heat can be lost very quickly lying on the bare ground. Wilderness Survival :: essays research papers Whether you are simply going camping at a commercial campground, taking a short hike, or backpacking into a pristine wilderness area... be prepared. Never leave to chance those few articles that may become lifesavers. Above all, always let someone know your itinerary and the time you plan to return. The following is a list of items that should be included in a basic survival kit: bodyOffer(17619)You May Be Owed Unclaimed Money To Find Out, Enter Your Last Name Here: 1.Waterproof matches (stick matches in a 35mm film container) or a disposable lighter. 2.Fire starter 3.Rigid blade knife (Preferably serrated on one side of the blade) w/ sheath 4.Folding saw 5.Compass 6.Map of the area you are in 7.Signal mirror 8.Flashlight 9.Plastic tarp 10.50 to 100 feet of nylon cord (1/8 inch is adequate) 11.First aid kit 12.Coins for pay phones (here again a 35mm film container works well) 13.Full canteen 14.Emergency food rations 15.Water purification tablets/filter. 16.Fish hooks and fishing line 17.Police whistle 18.Toilet paper Fire: When starting a fire find dry wood. Use the inner bark of trees, or look for the dead branches at the very bottom of fir trees. These are dead because they were denied sunlight by the branches above them. These same branches have probably protected them from getting wet. Start your fire small and gradually increase its size. Tinder will greatly enhance your chance for success. Take small branches and shred then with a knife o r your fingers. You can use dead grass, bird’s nests, wasp nests (unoccupied of course), inner bark from dead trees, or a strip of cloth from the tail of your shirt. Use anything that will ignite quickly. Place this in the center. Around this, build a teepee of small dry twigs. Once this is burning, slowly feed your fire with larger and larger pieces of wood. Always making sure the fire is burning freely before you progress to a larger piece of wood. Once this fire is burning do not let it go out. bodyOffer2() Shelter: Do not make the mistake of trying to construct a large shelter. Make it just large enough to accommodate you. This is important, especially in cold climates, because you are going to have to heat it. Use the materials at hand. Dig out a pit and line it with something to insulate you from the ground. Your body heat can be lost very quickly lying on the bare ground.

Assessing the Level of Environmental Literacy of Teachers

Assessing the level of environmental literacy of teachers in Epe division of Lagos State, Nigeria Fatona P. Olugbenga School of Environmental Health Science Ogun State College Of Health Technology P. M. B 2081 Ilese – Ijebu Email: [email  protected] ca 08033835621, Akinyele C. Babasope School of Environmental Health Science Ogun State College Of Health Technology P. M. B 2081 Ilese – Ijebu Email: [email  protected] com 08037221905 & Musah K. Toyin School of Public Health Nursing Ogun State College Of Health Technology P. M. B 2081 Ilese – Ijebu Email: musahk. [email  protected] com 08033708027 Abstract The crucial role that teachers’ environmental literacy plays in realizing the goals of environmental education and its importance cannot be overemphasized. Therefore, this study sought to measure the environmental literacy of teachers who are saddled with responsibility of imparting environmental ideas and knowledge into the school-going population. The tudy employed a descriptive research design and administered questionnaires on four hundred (400) male and female teachers drawn from government controlled secondary schools that were randomly selected from the teachers’ corps in Epe division of Lagos Nigeria. However, three hundred and fifty-two (352) copies were retrieved and analyzed. A self-designed instrument that has a reliability coefficient of 0. 945 was used in gathering data which was analyzed by using analysis of variance (F-te sts and T-tests). Three (3) null hypotheses were formulated and tested in the study; two (2) were accepted while one (1) was rejected. The findings revealed a tendency regarding the impact of training of teachers on their environmental literacy among others. Consequently, the study suggested the need for pre-service as well as in-service environmental education training of teachers and that the existing curriculum at all levels of education should be reviewed to richly include environmental sustainability. Keywords:Environmental literacy, education, teachers Introduction The earth is primarily life supporting system. It consists essentially biochemical processes that imbue it with the capacity to sustain life. As an ecosystem, the earth however, has a threshold within which it can effectively absorb or withstand interruptions and radical changes in the biochemical processes that help to sustain life. Unfortunately, development-oriented activities of man over the last century or so have primarily restructured the environment and upset the delicate balance of nature. It has resulted in a number of changes on the planet, earth. These changes are essentially inimical to the continued existence of man and other life forms here on earth (United Nations, 1992). For example, the air we breathe is constantly being overloaded with carbon dioxide and other poisonous material from vehicular emission, exhausts of industrial and power plant etc. Land are stripped bare of vegetation or polluted with oil spills and human waste. The use of ozone- depleting substance such as products with chlorofluorocarbon, halons and methyl bromides (from which plastics and foams are made) allow excessive levels of harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth, resulting in increased rates of skin cancer, eye damage and weakened immune system. There is higher rate of exploitation and use of natural resources and higher levels of waste become a global issue (United Nations, 1992). According to the Council of Ministers of Education (2005) sustainable development is both a goal and a concept. As a goal, it is an idea of a world where people protect the environment as they carry out their daily activities. As a concept, it involves conceptual probing about limits on natural resources, capacities of ecosystem and interactions among social, economic, political and environmental systems. In other words, it works towards a sustainable quality of life, now and in the future. Thus, Noibi and Lawal (1993) sees it as a development strategy wherein the physical assets, natural and human resources as well as available funds are managed in a manner that ensures increasing health and wealth for both the present and future generations on planet earth. The essences of sustainable development is to meet the needs and aspirations of the present generation of man and other living creatures, both plants and animals, without compromising the capacity of future generations to meet their own needs and aspirations (NEST, 1991). The United Nations (1992), Uche (1995), UNESCO (1997) and Inyang-Abia (1998, 2001) all assert that education is humanity’s best hope and most effective means for the quest to achieve sustainable development at national or global levels. This may be due to the fact that sustainable development calls for the particular skills, knowledge, values and attitudes regarding the environment, the economy and the well-being of people. Perhaps, in response to the calls by UNESCO and United Nations, education for sustainability has become the norm in most countries of the world in recent years. In Nigeria, there have been some activities aimed at creating awareness and educating the masses on environmental issues. Initially the mass media, various Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and government agencies were used to create awareness of the nature of the environment and the need for its sustainability, as Uche (1995) observed. The birth of Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) in the 1980’s, the rising interest among policy makers on the need for a sound environmental base for development, launching of national conservation strategy (NCS) in 1986, the natural resources conservation council (NRCC) in 1988 and the ultimate launching of the national policy on the environment in 1989 were all critical steps in the national drive towards environmental awareness and resources conservation. In order to facilitate the education of the citizenry for sustainability, the Nigeria government has infused environmental sustainability topics into the 2003 version of the national curriculum for primary schools (NERDC, 2003). The topics infused include population, pollution, soil management, waste and waste disposal, drugs and drug abuse, etc. The idea is to start education for sustainability from the foundation. While arrangements are made to do the same in higher levels of education, teachers are encouraged to incorporate environmental sustainability issues in their instruction (NERDC, 2003). The potential of environmental literacy as a vehicle to realize the educational agenda of sustainable development cannot be over-emphasized. According to Disinger and Roth (1992) environmental literacy is a prerequisite to maintaining and improving the quality of the environment and life as such. The development and fostering of environmental literacy need, therefore, to be a key objective in any general education programme (Roth, 1992). Apparently, the term â€Å"environmental literacy† does not mean the same to everyone. Since the first general reference to the concept â€Å"environmental literacy† appeared in 1969 (Roth, 1992), various researchers have made an effort to define it or to refine description of it. Example can be found in, inter alia, Clacherty (1992), Roth (1992) and Subbarini (1998). A definition of environmental literacy was developed from the various efforts of researchers such as Leeming, Porter, Dwyer, Cobern and Oliver (1997), Loubser (1994), Smith-Sebasto and Smith (1997), Pohorille (1985) and Buethe and Smallwood (1987). This definition was used for the purposes of this research and it stated that: Environmental literacy is the ability to be aware of one’s environment. It enriches one with the knowledge to realize the imbalances and threats the environment faces and enables one to form positive attitudes towards it with the aim of developing skills to resolve and prevent environmental problems and urge to protect and improve the environment for the present and future generations by active participation. A study was also made of various models comprising concepts researchers regard as important to environmental education and environmental literacy. From these attempts by, inter alia, Munson (1994), Odum (1992), Roth (1992) and Loubser (1994), ten concepts that were regarded as necessary for teachers to have a grasp of, before being able to really do justice to environmental education were identified. The ten concepts are in line with the definitions, aims, objectives and guiding principles of environmental education and preceding definition of environmental literacy. Each of the ten concepts is a cluster of related sub concepts representing aspects of environmental literacy. These ten concepts were selected mainly from major environmental area such as ecology and interactions in the environment, participation in the identification and prevention of environmental problems, decision making on environmental issues and environmental ethics. The ten concepts are biosphere, ecological perspective, interrelationship in an ecosystem, environmental changes, basic human needs, resources, maintaining environmental quality, the ability to make choices, decision-making on environmental issues, as well as environmental ethics. In most of these concepts there is a close link between knowledge, affect, skills and behaviour. Environmental literacy, therefore, is considered to be continuum of competencies raging from zero competencies to a very high competency. There is a broad spectrum of environmental literacy, from complete unawareness to deep, thorough understanding and concern (Buethe and Smallwood, 1997). For the purposes of this research a few distinguishable, but not separable, disposition levels on this continuum were identified, namely awareness, knowledge, attitude and participation. Teachers- more than any other professional group- can probably promote environmental literacy, by virtue of their interaction with society (more specifically learners, parents and colleagues). Teachers at all levels and subject areas have a role to play in this regard, i. e. contribute to the development of citizens who possess the basic understanding and skills to make informed decisions in matters affecting the environment and whose personal lifestyles support sustainable development. Teachers can, however, hardly assist learners to become environmentally literate if they themselves lack environmental literacy. Despite the important role teachers’ play in educating students, research into teacher’s level of environmental literacy has been extremely limited. The few studies that were reported indicated a relatively low level of environmental literacy. An example is a study by Buethe and Smallwood (1997) which stated that the environmental literacy of Indiana teachers is far from optimal. In addition several researchers, for example, Schreuder (1995), Braus (1995) and Papadimitriou (1995), mentioned that most teachers are not trained to do justice to environmental education. It seems, therefore, imperative to be able to determine the state of affairs regarding the environmental literacy of the teacher corps. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study: 1. There is no significant difference between the levels of environmental literacy of teachers if they are divided according to learning area in which they offer tuition. 2. There is no significant difference between the levels of environmental literacy of teachers if they are divided according to learning area in which they offer tuition. 3. There is no significant difference in the level of environmental literacy between teachers who receive training in environmental education and those who did not receive any training. Method Research design This is a descriptive survey research design of ex-post facto because the variables being studied had occurred and were not manipulated by the researchers. Instrumentation The questionnaire developed in this study consisted of two sections- section A which comprised items on background demographic information of respondents and section B which comprised 30 items dealing with the various aspects of environmental literacy assessed in this study. The items were developed according to a matrix with the ten central concepts representing environmental literacy on one axis and the disposition level of the respondent on the other axis. A 4-point scale ranging from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ was used as a response-measuring scale. Sample The study sample was drawn from the entire population of teachers in public secondary schools in Epe division of Lagos State. It consisted of 400 teachers randomly selected from 40 secondary schools randomly selected from the 4 local governments that make up the division. Questionnaires were however, adequately completed by 352 teachers. These respondents were representative of gender, age, learning area taught and qualifications obtained. Procedure Three research assistants were employed to assist in administering the printed questionnaires on the teachers in their respective schools. In some cases the filled questionnaire were returned on the spot while in other cases the research assistants went back on a different day to collect the completed questionnaires. Data analyses The data obtained from the questionnaire was analyzed by using analysis of variance (F tests and t tests). Results and discussion Hypothesis 1 ‘There is no significant difference between the levels of environmental literacy of teachers with different academic qualification’. Table 1:Level of environmental literacy of teachers with different qualifications |Qualification N Means SD | |NCE 103 416. 31 35. 71 | |B Ed 64 418. 88 37. 62 | |B A 24 417. 50 51. 4 | |B Sc 12 446. 00 41. 59 | |Other 149 422. 58 40. 48 | F (4. 347) = 1. 70; p>0. 05 The respondents were divided into five categories based on highest academic qualification as indicated in table 1. In order to compare the mean scores of the five groups an analysis of variance (F test) was carried out. The results of the F test, which appear in table 1, revealed that the null hypothesis could not be rejected (p>0. 5). It can, therefore, be concluded that there is no significant difference between the average environmental literacy of teachers with different academic qualification. It appears that this result contradicts research results reported by Buethe and Smallwood (1997), if one assumes that almost all secondary school science teachers in the USA have a BSc degree. According to them, science teach ers had higher levels of environmental literacy than other teachers. Hypothesis 2 ‘There is no significant difference between the levels of environmental literacy of teachers if they are divided according to learning area in which they offer tuition’. In order to test this null hypothesis, the respondents were divided into eight categories. According to an analysis of variance (F test), the null hypothesis cannot be rejected when the means of the total score obtained for the questionnaire are compared [F (7. 344) = 1. 81; p>0. 05]. This result is in line with a finding from a study by Abraham and Chacko (1999), according to which teacher training college lecturers have average environmental literacy, irrespective of the subjects they teach. An analysis of the mean scores (F test) obtained for the four dl fields in the eight categories revealed, however, an interesting picture. The results for the Knowledge dl field are indicated in Table 2. Table 2:Knowledge dl field scores of teachers in different learning areas |Learning area N Mean SD | |Language, literacy and communication 133 98. 62 11. 1 | |Human and social science 47 100. 49 9. 60 | |Maths, maths’ literacy and maths’ science 66 99. 36 8. 69 | |Natural science 76 103. 66 10. 89 | |Arts and culture 12 100. 2 4. 40 | |Economic and management science 9 103. 33 16. 12 | |Life orientation 7 90. 43 5. 06 | |Technology 2 100. 00 2. 83 | F (7. 344) = 2. 74; p